page

4

monolingualism the exception:  D. Crystal, The Language Revolution, (Cambridge UK: Polity Press, 2004), p 93.

4

language diversity index: R. Gordon, Jr. (Ed.), Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. (Dallas, TX.: SIL International, 2005). Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.

4

Census Data: Gateway to Latest Census Data on Language Use.
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jWCRAWFORD/census02.htm

4

Linguist Althea Gupta: “Bilingual and Multilingual Children: Another Perspective,” Ask-A-Linguist FAQ, Linguistlist.org, consulted 10/6/06.

5

Jane Merrill: Bringing up baby bilingual. (NY: Facts on File, Inc., 1984)

7

George Saunders: Bilingual children: From birth to teens (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1988).

8

Types of motivation: R.C. Gardner & W. E. Lambert, Attitudes and motivation in 2nd language learning (Rowley MA: Newbury House, 1972).

8

8

Ariel Dorfman, “The Wandering Bigamists of Language,” In I. De Courtivron (Ed.), Lives in Translation, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 36.

9

Income patterns: S. Fradd & T. Boswell, “Income patterns of bilingual and English-only Hispanics in selected metropolitan areas.” In S. Fradd (Ed.), Creating Florida’s multilingual global workforce. (Tallahassee FL: Florida Dept. of Education, 1999).

9

9

FBI agent: L. Wright, "The Agent," New Yorker, July 9, 2002.

11

Translations: Nuala Ni Dhomhnaill, “Linguistic ecology: Preventing a great loss.” In I. De Courtivron (Ed.), Lives in Translation, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) pp. 79-92.

11

12

Richard Rodriguez: Hunger of Memory (Boston: D.R.Godine, 1982) p. 23.

12-3

Language of comfort: V. Gathercole et al., Report for Welsh Language Board, Language Transmission in Bilingual Families in Wales, (Bangor,Wales, 2005).

14

Help to 3rd language: E. Bild & M. Swain, “Minority language students in a French programme: Their French proficiency.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 10 (1989), 255-274.

15

Both languages always activated: F. Grosjean et al., “Imaging bilinguals: When the neurosciences meet the language sciences,” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 6 (2003): 159–165.  Also:  Francis, W. S. “Bilingual semantic and conceptual representation.” In J. Kroll & A.M. B. de Groot (Eds.), Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches (pp. 251-267).  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

17

Switch to “dictionary matches”: R. W. Brown & J. Berko, “Word association and the acquisition of grammar.” Child Development 31 (1960): 1-14. BL: Sheng, L., McGregor, K., & Marian, V. (2006).  Lexical-semantic organization in bilingual children: Evidence from a repeated word association task. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 572-587.

17

17

17

17

17

18

Natural versus non-natural meaning: C.S. Pierce, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2006/entries/peirce/#seme

18

18

Sun-moon experiment: J. Piaget, The child's conception of the world. (NY: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1929).

18

18

Sun-moon experiment with bilinguals: J. Cummins, “Bilingualism and the development of metalinguistic awareness,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 9 (1978): 131-149.

18

Variation on sun-moon: C. Feldman & M. Shen, “Some language-related cognitive advantages of bilingual five-year-olds,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 118 (1971): 235-244.

18

20

Concept of print: for example, Marie Clay, Concepts about print. (Portsmouth NH: Heinemann, 2000).

21

Comparing bilinguals with different language pairs: E. Bialystok, “Bilingualism at school: Effect on the acquisition of literacy,” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age, pp. 107-124. (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006).

21-2

Moving card task: E. Bialytok, “Letters, sounds, and symbols: Changes in children's understanding of written language.” Developmental Psychology 28 (1991): 654-664.

22-3

Reading in two languages: D.K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children. (Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002).

22-3

23

Greater mental flexibility: W. E. Lambert, “The effects of bilingualism on the individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences.”  In P.Hornby (Ed.) Bilingualism. Psychological, social, and educational implications, pp. 15-28, (NY: Academic Press, 1977).

23

C. Kessler & M.E. Quinn, “Language minority children's linguistic and cognitive creativity.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 8 (1987): 173-186.

23

23

Problem solving: S. Ben-Zeev, “The influence of bilingualism on cognitive strategy and cognitive development.” Child Development, 48 (1977): 1009-1018.

24

Stroop test: J.R. Stroop, “Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.” Journal of  Experimental Psychology, 18, (1935): 643-662.

24-5

Selective attention: P.D. Zelazo, D. Frye & T. Rapus,  “Age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them.” Cognitive Development, 11 (1996): 37-63.

24-5

24-5

25

Simon effect: Simon, J. R., Acosta, E., Mewaldt, S. P., & Speidel, C. R. (1976). The effect of an irrelevant directional cue on choice reaction time: Duration of the phenomenon and its relation to stages of processing. Perception & Psychophysics, 19, 16–22.

25

Simon effect in children: M.M. Martin & E. Bialystok, The development of two kinds of inhibition in monolingual and bilingual children: Simon versus Stroop. Poster presented at the meeting of the Cognitive Development Society, Park City UT, April 2003.

25

Simon effect through lifespan: E. Bialystok, F.M. Craik, R. Klein, M. Viswanathan, “Bilingualism, aging,and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon Task,” Psychology and Aging, 19 (2004): 290-303.

25-6

Bilingualism and dementia: E. Bialystok, F.I.M. Craik & M. Freedman, “Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia.” Neuropsychologia, 45 (2007): 459-464.

27

Quote from Grosjean:

27

Linguistic relativity: B. L. Whorf, Language, thought, and reality, (NY: MIT Press & John Wiley and Sons, 1956).

28

“Weak form” of relativity: W. Phillips &  L. Boroditsky, “Can quirks of grammar affect the way you think? Grammatical gender and object concepts,” Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. Boston, MA, August, 2003.

28-9

Relativity in verbs: L. Naigles & P. Terrazas, “Motion verb generalizations in English and Spanish: Influences of language and syntax.” Psychological Science 9 (1998): 363-369.

29-30

Indonesian experiment: L. Boroditsky, W. Ham, & M. Ramscar, “What is universal about event perception? Comparing English and Indonesian speakers,” Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Fairfax, VA, August, 2002.

30

Early language specific thinking: M. Bowerman, “The origins of children’s spatial semantic categories: Cognitive versus linguistic determinants,” In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 145-176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

30-1

Later language specific thinking: J. A. Lucy, Grammatical Categories and Cognition. (NY: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). Also, J. A. Lucy & S. Gaskins, Vygotsky and the culture of language. Paper presented at Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City, April 1989.

32-3

Effect on social attitudes: S. Wright & L. Tropp, “Investigating the impact of bilingual instruction on children’s intergroup attitudes,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 8 (2005): 309-328.

33

Saving endangered languages: J. Fishman (Ed.), Can threatened languages be saved: Reversing language shift, revisited.  (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2001).

33-4

Statistics about Welsh: Welsh Language Board website, http://www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org.uk/ (last accessed 4/2007)

35

Esperanto: http://esperanto.net/info/index_en.html (last accessed 1/2007)

35

Number of English speakers: D. Crystal, The language revolution. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), p. 9.

35

Words for snow: G. Pullum, The great Eskimo vocabulary hoax. (Chicago:U of Chicago Press, 1991).

35

Quechua “we”: D. Sommer (Ed.), Bilingual games: Some literary investigations, Introduction, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 8.

35

Relative friendship terms: E. Hoffman, Lost in translation, (NY: Dutton, 1989).  Also in A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as a tool for exploring bilingual lives.” International Journal of Bilingualism 9 (1005): 7-26.

35

Against monoculture: M. Pollan, Botany of Desire. (NY: Random House, 2001).

35-6

Potato famine: The Future of Food, Deborah Koons, writer, producer, director, Lily Films. (Mill Valley CA, 2004).

36

On “unnatural selection”: G. Steiner, Errata: An Examined Life (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1997) p.113.

36

Separated by a common language: In E. Esar, Treasury of humorous quotations, (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1949).

37

Loss of linguistic diversity: D. Crystal, “Languages in danger,” p. 47 ff. (See note for p. 4.)  Also: K. David Harrison When languages die: The extinction of the world’s languages and the erosion of human knowledge. (NY: Oxford University Press, 2007).

43

Dexterity for speaking: The Human Language Series (film), Gene Searchinger (producer), Equinox Films, 1994

Searchinger, G.

43

Powerful “learning machine”: A. Gopnik, A. Meltzoff, & P. Kuhl, The Scientist in the Crib (NY: Wm Morrow & Co., 1999), p.1.

Gopnik, A.

Meltzoff, A.

Kuhl, P.

43-4

LAD: N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965).

Chomsky, N.

44

LASS: J. Bruner, Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language (NY: Norton, 1983).

Bruner, J.

45

Early auditory development: L. Eliot, What's going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life (NY: Bantam Books, 1999), pp.365-366.

Eliot, L.

46-7

Turn-taking, etc: C. Snow, “The development of conversation between mothers and babies.” Journal of Child Language 4 (1977): 1-22. M. Carpenter, K. Nagell, and M. Tomasello, “Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age.  Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 63 (1998) Serial No. 255.

Snow, C.

47

Early vocal development: M.M Vihman, Phonological Development: The Origins of Language in the Child (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); D. K. Oller, The Emergence of the Speech Capacity. Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2000.

Vihman, M. M.

48

Statistical learning: J.R. Saffran, “Statistical language learning: Mechanisms and constraints,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12 (2003), 110-114.

Saffran, J. R.

48

How many speech sounds: S. Pinker, The Language Instinct (NY: Wm Morrow, 1994), p. 161.

Pinker, S.

48-9

Learning to ignore sound contrasts: J. Werker & R. C. Tees, “Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7 (1984): 49-63.

Werker, J.

Tees, R. C.

49

Recognizing stress pattern: P. Jusczyk, The discovery of spoken language (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1997).

Jusczyk, P.

50

Parentese: E. L. Newport, H. Gleitman, & L. R. Gleitman, “Mother, I'd rather do it myself: Some effects and non-effects of maternal speech.” In C. Snow & C. Ferguson (Eds.), Talking to children: Language input and acquisition (pp. 109-150). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

Newport, E.

Gleitman, H.

Gleitman, L. R.

51

First words from routines: K. Nelson, Making sense: The acquisition of shared meaning, (NY: Academic Press, 1985).

Nelson, K.

51

What is a name:  R. Golinkoff, C. Mervis, & K. Hirsh-Pasek, “Early object labels: The case for a developmental lexical principles framework,” Journal of Child Language, 21 (1994), 125-156.

Golinkoff, R.

Mervis, C.

Hirsh-Pasek, K.

51-2

Common nouns and proper nouns: N. Katz, E. Baker,& J. McNamara, “What's in a name? A study of how children learn common and proper names,” Child Development, 45 (1974), 469-473. Also: S. Gelman & M. Taylor, “How two-year-old children interpret proper and common names for unfamiliar objects.” Child Development, 55, 1535-1540.

McNamara, J. (with Katz, N. and Baker, E.)

Gelman, S. (and Taylor, M.)

52-3

Learning verbs: L. Gleitman & H. Gleitman, “A picture is worth a thousand words, but that's the problem: The role of syntax in vocabulary acquisition.” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1 (1992), 31-35.  Also C. Fisher, “Structural limits on verb mapping: The role of abstract structure in 2.5-year-olds' interpretations of novel verbs Developmental Science 5 (2002), 55–64.

Gleitman, L.

Gleitman, H.

53

Learning mental state verbs: K. Asplin, Can complement frames help children learn the meaning of abstract verbs? Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2002.

Asplin, K.

54

Associative learning: S. Pinker, The language instinct, Chapter 5 “Words, words, words.” (NY: Wm. Morrow, 1994).

Pinker, S.

55-6

Learning the system, generative grammar: N. Chomsky, Aspects of the theory of syntax. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1965).

Chomsky, N.

56

Animal grammar:  M. Tomasello, “Can an ape understand a sentence?” Language & Communication, 14 (1994), 377-390. Also, I. Pepperberg, The Alex Studies: Cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots, (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). 

Tomasello, M.

Pepperberg, I.

57

Eager/ easy to please: C. Chomsky, The acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10, (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1969).

Chomsky, C.

58

Baby algebra: G. Marcus, S. Vijayan, S. Bandi Rao, & P. M. Vishton, “Rule learning by seven-month-old infants,” Science, 283 (1999), 77-80.

Marcus, G. (and others)

58

Recursion, infinity:  Chomsky, see note for p. 55.

Chomsky, N

59

Discourse after age 5:  M.Hickmann, Children's discourse: Person, space, and time across languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

Hickmann, M.

60

Communicative competence:  D.Hymes, “Models of the interaction of language and social life,” In J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication  (pp. 35-71) NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston., 1972.

Hymes, D.

62

Following gaze: L. Eliot, “Wiring up the visual brain,” What’s going on in there? (NY: Bantam Books, 1999).

Eliot, L.

63

Vocabulary tables: L. Fenson et al., MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory Technical Manual (Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2003).

Fenson L. (with others)

64

BICS & CALP: J. Cummins, “Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters.”  Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19 (1979): 121-129.

Cummins, J.

64

Understanding irony: Andrews, J., Rosenblatt, E., Malkus, U., Gardner, H., & Winner, E. (1986). Children's abilities to distinguish metaphoric and ironic utterances from mistakes and lies. Communication and Cognition, 19, 3/4, 281-298.

Gardner, H. with others

Winner, E. with others

64-5

Estimates of heredity: R. J. Sternberg & E. Grigorenko (Eds.), Environmental effects on cognitive abilities. (Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2001).

Sternberg, R. J.

Grigorenko, E.

65

SLI runs in families: J. Niels. & D. M. Aram, “Family history of children with developmental language disorders.” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63 (1986), 655-658.

Niels, J.

Aram, M.

65

“Grammar gene”:  F.Vargha-Khadem et al.,”Neural basis of an inherited speech and language disorder.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 95 (1998): 12695 – 12700.

Vargha-Khadem F. et al.

65

Twin studies illustration: M. Cole, S. Cole, & C. Lightfoot, The development of children, 5th edition. (NY: Worth Publisher, 2005), p. 60.

Cole, M. (with others)

65

Behaviorist views of language: B.F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior (NY: Appleton, Century,Croft, 1957).

Skinner, B. F.

66

Chomsky’s review of Verbal Behavior: N. Chomsky, A Review of B.F. Skinner's “Verbal Behavior,” Language, 35 (1959), 26-58.

Chomsky, N.

67

Learning from input: V. C. Gathercole & E. Hoff, “Input and the acquisition of language: Three questions.” In E. Hoff & M. Shatz (Eds.), The handbook of language development (pp. 107-127).  Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007.

Gathercole, V. C.

Hoff, E.

68-9

Quantity of input: B. Hart & T. Risley, Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. (Baltimore MD: Paul Brooks, 1995).

Hart B. (with Risley, T.)

69-70

Need for listening: R. Burns-Hoffman, A discourse analysis of variation in children’s language in preschool, small group settings. Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado at Boulder, 1992.

Burns, R.

70

Role of parent interaction: B. Hart & T. Risley, The social world of children learning to talk. (Baltimore MD: Paul Brooks, 1999).

Hart, B. (with Risley, T.)

70-1

Review of TV learning: D. R. Anderson & T. Pempek, Television and Very Young Children, American Behavioral Scientist  48 (2005), 505-522.

Anderson , D. R. (and Pempek, T.)

71

Hearing children of deaf parents: S. Pinker, p. 278. (see note for p. 48)

Pinker, S.

71

Hearing child of deaf parents, case study: L. Naigles & L. Mayeux, Television as incidental language teacher. In D. Singer & J. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 135-152). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage., 2001.

Naigles, L. (and Mayeux, L.)

71-2

Talking book study: M. Collins & J. Parish, Electronic books: Boon or bust for interactive reading? Poster presented at the Boston University Conference on Language Development, Boston, November 2006.

Collins, M. (and Parish, J.)

72

Positive input: B. Hart & T. Risley (see note for p. 68)

Hart, B. (with Risley, T.)

73

Hiam Ginott: Between parent and child: New solutions to old problems. (NY: Macmillan, 1965).

Ginott, Hiam

73

Recasts and turnabouts: K. Kaye & R. Charney, “How mothers maintain ‘dialogue’ with two-year-olds.” In D. R. Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language and thought, (pp. 211-230). NY: Norton, 1980. 

Kaye, K.

Charney, R.

74-5

Jake story adapted from R. Burns-Hoffman, personal communication.

Burns-Hoffman, R.

75

Zone of proximal development: L.Vygotsky, Thought and language. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1962).

Vygotsky, L.

Multilingual Acquisition Device (MAD):  D. Crystal (2004:93), see note for page 4.

Crystal, D.

84

“Operating principles for language learners”: D. Slobin, The cross-linguistic study of language acquisition. (Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 1985).

Slobin, D.

85

LAD available or not to older learners: L. Eubank (Ed.), Point counterpoint. Universal Grammar in the second language. (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1991.)

Eubank, L.

85-6

Stages of SLA: P. Tabors, One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 1997. (2nd edition to appear soon.)

Tabors, P.

86

Formulaic speech in SLA: L. Wong-Fillmore, “Individual differences in second language acquisition.” In C. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S. –Y. Wang (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 203-227). San Diego: Academic Press, 1979.

Wong-Fillmore, L.

87

Native versus near-native speakers: K. Hyltemstam & N. Abrahamsson, “Who can become native-like in a second language? All, some, or none?” Studia Linguistica 54/2 (2000): 150-166.

Kyltemstam, K. (and Abrahamsson, H.)

91-3

Types of aphasia: L. Eliot, What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind develop in the first five years of life. (NY: Bantam Books, 1999). Chapter 14: “Language and the developing brain.”

Eliot, L.

93

Right hemisphere aphasia: M. Albert & L. K. Obler, The bilingual brain: Neuropsychological and neurolinguistc aspects of bilingualism. NY: Academic Press, 1978.

Albert, M.

Obler, L K.

93

Unstable aphasia: Reported in F. Grosjean, Life with two languages. (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 260.

Grosjean, F.

93-4

Laboratory techniques for infant perception: K. Karmiloff & A. Karmiloff-Smith, Pathways to language: From fetus to adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001. (also in chapter 7)

Karmiloff, K.

Karmiloff-Smith, A.

94

Brain activation for speech:  K. H. Kim and colleagues, “Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages.” Nature 388 (1997): 171-174; D. Perani and colleagues, “The bilingual brain: Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language.” Brain 121 (1998): 1841-1852; M Shalinsky. L. Petitto and colleagues, Near-infrared spectroscopy: shedding light on the neural signature of bilingualism. Poster presented at the Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting, Atlanta GA, October 2006.

Kim, K. H. (and colleagues)

Perani, D. (and colleagues)

Petitto, L (and colleagues)

94

Effects of experience on brain connectivity: reprint in L. Eliot (1999:28). (See note for p. 45.)

Eliot, L.

95

A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as a tool for exploring bilingual lives” (See note for p. 35.  Also Chapter 8.)

Wierzbicka, A.

95

Interdependence of reading:  A. Cobo-Lewis, R. Eilers, B. Z. Pearson, & V. Umbel, “Interdependence of Spanish and English knowledge in language and literacy among bilingual children.” In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 118-134). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.

Cobo-Lewis, A.

Eilers, R.

Pearson, B. Z.

Umbel, V.

95

“Distributed” lexicon: D. K. Oller & B. Z. Pearson. “Assessing the effects of bilingualism: A background.” In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 3–21). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2002.

Oller, D. K.

Pearson, B. Z.

96

Werner Leopold,  Speech development of a bilingual child: A linguist’s record (4 volumes). Evanston IL: Northwestern University Press, 1939-1949.

Leopold, Werner

96

Influential article on language differentiation: V. Volterra & T. Taeschner, “The acquisition and development of language by bilingual children.” Journal of Child Language 5, 311-326.

Volterra V. (with Taeschner, T.)

97

“Bilingual is not two monolinguals”: F. Grosjean, “Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person.” Brain and Language 36 (1989): 3-15.

Grosjean, F.

97

Language mixing, “rich language stew”: Gupta (see Chapter 1, note for p. 4)

Gupta

98

Code-switching as a skilled behavior: F. Genesee, J. Paradis & M. Crago (2004), Dual language development and disorders. Chapter 5. (Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2004).

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

98

Codeswitching illustration: S. Poplack, "Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español": Toward a typology of code-switching.” Linguistics 18: 7/8 (1980): 581-618.

Poplack, S.

98-9

Trigger word examples: M. Clyne, Dynamics of language contact. (NY: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

Clyne, M.

100-101

Developmental versus transfer errors: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, Chapter 6. (See note for p. 98.)

Genesee, F.

Paradis. J.

Crago, M.

100

“American Tongues” video from the Center for New American Media. L. Alvarez & A. Kolker, Directors, NY: CNAM, 1987.

Alvarez, L. (and Kolder, A.)

100-101

Roman Jakobson: H. Kucera, Roman Jakobson, 1983; Kissinger: Albright: (web, Wikipedia, last accessed July 17, 2007)

Kucera, H.

101-102

Older language learners faster: C. Snow & M. Hoefnagel-Hohle, “The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning.” Child Development 49 (1978): 1114-1128.

Snow, C.

Hoefnagel-Hohle, M.

102

Localizing sounds: L. Eliot (1999:244). See note for p. 45.

Eliot, L.

102-103

Faster brain metabolism for young children/ Pruning connections between nerve cells: A. Gopnik, A. Meltzoff, & P. Kuhl, The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains, and how children learn. (NY: Wm Morrow, 1999), p. 186.

Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. and

Kuhl, P.

Meltzoff, A.

103

Creation of new connections between nerve cells: L. Eliot, (1999: 28). See note for p. 45.  Figure 6: J. L. Conel, The postnatal development of the human cerebral cortex, volumes 1, 3, & 6. (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1939, 1947, & 1959).

Eliot, L.

104

Diffuse versus automatic brain activation: L. Eliot (1999:400-401). See note p. 63.

Eliot, L.

104-105

Simon: J. Singleton & E. Newport, “When learners surpass their models: The acquisition of American Sign Language from inconsistent input.” Cognitive Psychology 49 (2004):370-407.

Singleton, J.

Newport, E.

106

Imprinting: K. Z. Lorenz, Evolution and the modification of behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.

Lorenz, K. Z.

106

Critical period in songbirds: P. A. Marler, “Comparative approach to vocal learning: Song development in white-crowned sparrows.” Journal of Comparative & Physiological. Psychology 71 (1970): 1-25.

Marler, P. A.

106-107

Genie: R. Rymer, Genie: An abused child’s flight from silence. (NY: Harper Collins, 1993).  Also, “Secret of a Wild Child,” A NOVA Production by WGBH/Boston, 1994.

Rymer, R.

107

Chelsea: S. Curtiss, “The independence and task-specificity of language.” In M. Bornstein & J. Bruner (Eds.), Interaction in human development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1989.

Curtiss, S.

107

Critical period for late signers: R. I. Mayberry and colleagues, “Linguistic ability and early language exposure”. Nature, (2002): 417, 38.

Mayberry, R.

107-108

Age for switching dominance: K. Kohnert, E. Bates & A. Hernandez, “Balancing bilinguals: Lexical-semantic production and cognitive processing in children learning Spanish and English.”  Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 42 (1999): 1400-1413.  Also, K. Kohnert & E. Bates, “Balancing bilinguals II: Lexical comprehension and cognitive processing in children learning Spanish and English.” JSLHR, 45 (2002): 347-359.

Kohnert, K.

Bates, E.

Hernandez, A.

108

Persian experiment: H. Jamshidiha & H. Marefat, “L1 Persian attrition.” Linguistics Journal 1 (2006): 17-46.

Jamshidiha, H. (with Marefat, H.)

108

Comparison of cortex size: K. Semendeferi, K., A. Lu, N. Schenker, & H. Damasio, “Humans and great apes share a large frontal cortex.” Nature Neuroscience 5 (2002):272-276.

Semendeferi, K. (and others)

108-109

“Neoteny,”extended childhood in humans: S. J. Gould, "A Biological Homage to Mickey Mouse." In The panda's thumb: More reflections in natural history. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1980), 95-107.

Gould, S. J.

109

Isabelle: reported in S. Pinker, The language instinct. (NY: Wm Morrow, 1994), p. 292. (Reference to V. Tartter, Language processes. NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1986.)

Pinker, S.

109

Hemispherectomy: D. Caplan, Biological studies of mental processes. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1980.

Caplan, D.

111

Age children get “intelligible”: Hart & Risley, 1999. (See note for p. 70)

Hart, B. (with Risley, T.)

111

Generative grammar: Chomsky, 1965. See note for p. 43.

Chomsky, N.

111

Interdependence of language (LLBC, see note for p. 95)

Oller, D. K.

Eilers, R. E.

112

How many words does a person know?  D Crystal, Encyclopedia of the English Language. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 123. See also Future of Englishes.

Crystal, D.

113

Morphosyntax/ syntax versus lexicon, regular versus irregular past tense: S. Pinker, The language instinct. (kinds of past tense: )  See note for p. 48.

Pinker, S.

114

Conscious versus subconscious language knowledge: Ellis, N. (ed.).  Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994).

Ellis, N.

115

“Critical mass”: V. C. Gathercole, “Monolingual and bilingual acquisition: Learning different treatments of that-trace phenomena in English and Spanish.” In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 220-254). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.

Gathercole, V. C.

115

Threshold, learning sequences: V. C. Gathercole, “Miami and North Wales, So far and yet so near: A constructivist account of morphosyntactic development in bilingual children.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10/3 (2007): 224-247.

Gathercole, V. C.

116

Length of time for learning language: Cummins, see note for p. 64; Also: V. Collier, (1995). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in Language and Education, 1, 1-12. Collier, V. (1992). A synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data on academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, 187-212.

Cummins, J.

Collier, V.

116

How much time needed: 20% minimum: See Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedag & Oller “Input factors in lexical learning of bilingual infants (ages 10 to 30 months).” Applied Psycholinguistics 18 (1997): 41-58; 30% minimum: J. Werker and colleagues, “Bilingual speech processing in infants and adults.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 1-18). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006.

Pearson, B. Z. (Fernandez, Lewedag, & Oller)

Werker (and others)

116

Limit on number of languages: Ken Hale http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/hale.html; Charles Berlitz: C. Berlitz, Native tongues. NY: Grosset & Dunlap, 1982.

116-117

Polyglot savant: N. Smith and I. Tsimpli, The Mind of a Savant: Language Learning and Modularity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995).

Smith N.

Tsimpli, I.

118

European Union language teaching models: see in Appendix.

118

Waldorf School movement: (See Chapter 8.)

123

A. De Houwer study on parent beliefs: “Environmental factors in early bilingual development: The role of parental beliefs and attitudes.” In G. Extra & L. Verhoeven (Eds.), Bilingualism and migration (pp. 75-95). Berlin: Mouton de Gruytere, 1999.

De Houwer, A.

124

Study in Papua New Guinea (in de Houwer 1999, p. 88): D. Kulick, Language shift and cultural reproduction. Socialization, self and syncretism in a Papua New Guinean village. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

Kulik, D.

125

Linguist-parents’ study of their own children: W. Leopold (see note for p. 96, Chapter 3); M. Vihman, “Language differentiation by the bilingual infant.” Journal of Child Language 12 (1985): 297-324; M. Schnitzer & E. Krasinski, “The development of segmental phonological production in a bilingual child.” Journal of Child Language 21 (1994): 585-622 and volume 23 (1996): 547-571;  M. Deuchar & S. Quay, Bilingual acquisition: Theoretical implications of a case study. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

Leopold, W.

Vihman, M.

Schnitzer, M (& E. Krasinski)

Deuchar, M

Quay, S.

125-126

Survey of “success” rates: S. Barron-Hauwaert, Language strategies for bilingual families.(Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2004), p. 181. Also, A. De Houwer, “Parental language input patterns and children’s bilingual use.” Applied Psycholinguistics 28 (2007), 411–424. (includes references to several other surveys.)

Barron-Hauwaert, S.

De Houwer, A.

126

Role of input:  A. de Houwer, “Home languages spoken in officially monolingual Flanders: A survey.” In K. Bochmann, P. Nelde, & W. Wolck (Eds.), (pp. 71-87). Methodology of Conflict Linguistics (St. Augustin, Asgard Verlag, 2003); Also: B. Z. Pearson, S. Fernandez., V. Lewedag, & D. K. Oller. “Input factors in lexical learning of bilingual infants (ages 10 to 30 months).” Applied Psycholinguistics 18 (1997): 41-58.

De Houwer, A.

Pearson, B. Z. (Fernandez, Lewedag, & Oller)

128

Parents' language patterns 84%: A. De Houwer,“Trilingual input and children’s language use in trilingual families in Flanders.” In C. Hoffman & J. Ytsma (Eds.), Trilingualism in family, school, & community (pp. 118-135). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2004. (p. 131).

De Houwer, A.

128

More exposure for minority language: Pearson and colleagues, 1997, See note for p. 116); M. Vihman and colleagues, “The onset of word form recognition in one language and in two.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 30-44). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006. (p.42)

Pearson, B. Z. (Fernandez, Lewedag, & Oller)

Vihman, M (and others)

129

Attitude more important than skill in majority language: K. Hakuta & D. D’Andrea. “Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in Mexican background high-school students.” Applied Linguistics 13 (1992): 72-99. (p.91)

Hakuta, K

D’Andrea, D.

130

Downs Syndrome child learning language bilingually: Observed in University of Miami Infant Vocalizations Study, 1990-1997, (Principal Investigator: D. K. Oller).

Oller, D. K.

131

Lack of advantage for cognates: V. M. Umbel, B. Z. Pearson, M. C. Fernandez, & D. K. Oller, “Measuring bilingual children's receptive vocabularies.” Child Development 63 (1992): 1012-1020; Also, B. Z. Pearson and colleagues, “Cross-language synonyms in the lexicons of bilingual infants: One language or two?” Journal of Child Language 22 (1995): 345-368. Rates of recognizing cognates: B. Hancin Bhatt & W. Nagy. “Lexical transfer and second language morphological development.” Applied Psycholinguistics 15 (1994): 289-310.

Umbel, V. M. (and Pearson, Fernandez, and Oller)

Pearson, B.Z. (and Fernandez and Oller

Hancin-Bhatt, B.

Nagy, W.

132-133

U Miami language survey: See R. Eilers, B. Z. Pearson & A. Cobo-Lewis, “Social factors in bilingual development.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 68-90). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006.

Eilers, R. (with Pearson and Cobo-Lewis)

133-134

Saunders on siblings: 1988:67ff. See note for p. 7.

Saunders, G.

134

value of ethnic enclave: W. E. Lambert & D. M. Taylor, “Language in the lives of ethnic minorities: Cuban-American families in Miami.” Applied Linguistics 17 (1996): 477-500.

Lambert, W. E.

Taylor, D. M.

134-135

Minority language used with parents' friends: Gathercole, 2005. (See note above Chapter 1 for p. 12.)

Gathercole, V. C.

135

School language more potent than home language:  (reanalysis of data from Language and literacy in bilingual children.)  B. Z. Pearson, “Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the United States.” Applied Psycholinguistics 28/3 (2007):399-410.

Pearson, B. Z.

135

Strength of English globally/ percent of Internet in English: D. Crystal, The language revolution, chapter 3 “The role of the internet.”(Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004) p. 87.

Crystal, D.

136

Percent of language speakers: R. Gordon, 2005 (reference in Chapter 1, note for p. 4).

Gordon, R.

136

Language shift in Miami masked by immigration: children of immigrants less likely to be fluent: LLBC; Chapter; R. Eilers, D. K. Oller & A. Cobo-Lewis, “Bilingualism and cultural assimilation in Miami Hispanic children.” (Chapter 3). In Oller & Eilers, LLBC (pp. 43-63).  See note for p. 22.

Eilers, R. (with Oller and Cobo-Lewis)

137

% of families who switch strategies: Barron-Hauwaert (2004: 27). See note for p. 125.

Barron-Hauwaert, S.

138

M. Grammont, Observations sur le lengage des enfants (‘Óbservantions on children’s language’). Paris: MelangesMeillet, 1902.

Grammont, M.

138

Deuchar argue for ML@H: See note for p. 125, discussion in Deuchar and Quay’s Introduction.

Deuchar, M.

138-139

Organization of curriculum (T&P):  Elizabeth Howard & Donna Christian, “Two-Way Immersion 101: Designing and Implementing a Two-Way Immersion Education Program at the Elementary Level.”  On-line at  http://www.cal.org/crede/pubs/edpractice/EPR9.htm  (Last accessed 6/20/2007)

Howard, E.

Christian, D.

139

Gupta: “Ask a linguist FAQ” Linguistlist.com (See note for p. 4.)

Gupta, A.

140

Switching to MLP: Barron-Hauwaert (2004:182). See note for p. 125.

Barron-Hauwaert, S.

140

Bilingual and monolingual mode: (also see note for p. 97)

Grosjean, F.

140

Time estimates for language exposure. See note in Chapter 3 for p.116.

Pearson, B. Z. (Fernandez, Lewedag, & Oller)

141

Fathers less likely to learn ml:Barron-Hauwert p. 83 (fathers more likely to be monolingual than mothers (50% versus ~2%): p. 82-83 p151 70% of parents use the father’s language.  See note for p. 125.

Barron-Hauwaert, S.

142

3-way conversation strategies: from Saunders (p. 57 ff). See note for p. 7.

Saunders, G.

143

Bilingual literature: See references in Chapter 8.

Sommer, D.

De Courtivron, I.

147

Also Saunders (see note for p. 7), Deuchar (see note for p. 125), and Jameelah Muhammed, The global child. (Washington DC: BEE Books, 2003).

Saunder, G.

Deuchar, M.

Muhammed, J.

149-150

Code-switching spectrum: E. Lanza, “Language contact in bilingual two-year-olds and code-switching: Language encounters of a different kind?” International Journal of Bilingualism 1 (1997): 135-162.

Lanza, E.

150

I-messages: T. Gordon, Parent Effectiveness Training (PET): The no-lose program for raising responsible children. NY: P.H. Wyden, 1970.

Gordon, T.

150-151

Children’s sensitivity to adult levels of code-mixing: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago: pp. 104-105. (See note for p. 98.)

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

152

Preference for majority language: B. Z. Pearson & A. McGee, “Language choice in Hispanic-background junior high school students in Miami: 1988 update.” In A. Roca & J. Lipski (Eds.), Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. (Berlin: Mouton de Gruytere, 1993).  Also, Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Chapter 3. (see note for p. 22.)

Pearson, B. Z. (with McGee)

Eilers, R. (with Oller and Cobo-Lewis)

153-154

Directions to au pair: Jane Merrill: p. 61-62. (See note for p. 5).

Merrill, J.

George Saunders book (see note for p. 7).

Saunders, G.

179/
212

Joshua Fishman: J. Fishman, Language loyalty in the United States; The maintenance and perpetuation of non-English mother tongues by American ethnic and religious groups. The Hague, Mouton, 1966.

Fishman, J.

180

American Sign Language (in Glossary)

185-186

More time needed in minority language (see note for p. 128)

Pearson, B. Z. (Fernandez, Lewedag, & Oller)

Vihman, M (and others)

192

Article on Liz Spelke: M. Talbot, “The baby lab.” New Yorker, September 4, 2006, p. 98.

Spelke, L.

Talbot, M.

192

Silent period: P. Tabors, (See note for p. 85.)

Tabors, P.

198-199

Jane Merrill, chapter 9, “Language travel: Distant shores.” Bringing up baby bilingual. (NY: Facts on File Inc., 1984).

Merrill, J.

201

Dual immersion programs (see CAL website in Appendix).

208

American schools in Latin America (See in Appendix)

213

Barron-Hauwaert’s survey: In Language strategies for bilingual families: The one-parent-one-language approach. (Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2004).

Barron-Hauwaert, S.

222-

Definition of SLI:  Much of the information in this chapter comes from F. Genesee, J. Paradis, & M. Crago, Dual language development and disorder: A handbook on bilingualism and second language learning (Baltimore MD: Brookes Publishing, 2004).  SLI is defined in their glossary, p. 225 and their Chapter 8 discusses assessment and intervention.

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

223

Definition of dyslexia: in glossary

223

Which language is spared in aphasia:a summary of research is found in F. Grosjean, Life with two languages (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 258-263.

Grosjean, F.

224

Prior attitudes about bilingualism and SLI: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2004 especially p.21 and Chapter 8.

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

224

Incidence of SLI: L. Leonard, Children with specific language impairment. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1998). Tomblin, Bruce, N. L. Records, P. R. Buckwalter, X. Zhang, E. Smith, and M. O’Brien. M. “Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 40 (1997):1245-1260.

Leonard, L.

Tomblin, B. (and others)

225

Incidence of hearing disorders: American Speech Language and Hearing Association website http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/ (accessed on 3/10/2007).

225

Quotation from Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, p. 212. (See note for p. 222).

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

225

Definition of auditory neuropathy: see ASHA website referenced on this page.

ASHA website

225-226

SLI in immersion students: M. Bruck, “The suitability of Early French Immersion programs for the language disabled child,” Canadian Journal of Education, 3 (1978), pp. 51-72.

Bruck, M.

226

Impairment equivalent to monolinguals in both languages: Paradis, & Crago, F. Genesee, & M. Rice, “French-English bilingual children with SLI: How do they compare to with their monolingual peers,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 36, (2003), pp. 113-127.

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

Rice, M.

227

No measures normed on bilinguals: B. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development in bilingual babies and toddlers,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 2, (1998), pp. 347-372.  Also, Genesee, Paradis, & Crago (2004), Chapter 8. (See note for p. 222.)

Pearson, B.

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

227

Norms sensitive to bilingual development: E. D. Pena, V. Gutierrez-Clellen, A. Iglesias, B. A. Goldstein, & L. M. Bedore. Bilingual English Spanish Assessment (BESA). In development.

Pena, E. D.

Gutierrez-Clellen, V.

Iglesias, A.

Goldstein, B. A.

Bedore, L. M.

227

Norm for bilinguals according to amount of exposure: V. Gathercole, (manuscript). Introduction to Welsh receptive vocabulary test for Welsh-English bilinguals.

Gathercole, V.

237

Speech therapy in one language versus in two: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, p. 88. (See note for p. 222.)

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

245-246

Early babbling: D. K. Oller, The emergence of the speech capacity. Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2000.

Oller, D. K.

245-246

CDI: L. Fenson and colleagues, Users Guide and Technical Manual for MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories: 2nd edition. Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2003.  Information on international forms: http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/cdi/adaptations.htm

Fenson, L. (and colleagues)

246

First Words Project: at Florida State University, Amy Wetherby, Ph.D. Director; http://firstwords.fsu.edu/

Wetherby, A.

246

Canonical babbling as a warning sign: D. K. Oller, R. E.  Eilers, A. R. Neal, A., B. Cobo-Lewis, “Late onset canonical babbling: A possible early marker of abnormal development.” American Journal on Mental Retardation 103 (1998): 249 -263.

Oller, D. K. (with Eilers, A. Neal, and Cobo-Lewis)

246

Bilingual babbling: D. K. Oller, R. E. Eilers, R. Urbano, and A. B. Cobo-Lewis, “Development of precursors to speech in infants exposed to two languages.”  Journal of Child Language 27 (1997): 407-25.

Oller, D. K. (and others)

246-247

Age of first words: CDI; Miami Infant Study, B. Z. Pearson, S. Fernandez & D. K. Oller, “Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: Comparison to monolingual norms.” Language Learning 43 (1993): 93-120; A. Doyle, M.  Champagne & N. Segalowitz, “Some issues in the assessment of linguistic consequences of early bilingualism.” Working Papers on Bilingualism 14 (1977): 21-30; L. Petitto and colleagues, “Bilingual signed and spoken language acquisition from birth: Implications for the mechanisms underlying early bilingual language acquisition.” Journal of Child Language 28 (2001): 453-496.

Pearson, B. Z. (with Fernandez and Oller)

Doyle, A. (with Champagne and Segalowitz)

Petitto, L (and colleagues)

247

Age of first grammar: CDI reference (See note for p. 63) and Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, see note for p. 222).

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

247

Hamburg project: J. Meisel, Bilingual first language acquisition: French and German grammatical development. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994).

Meisel, J.

248

Ways to test babies: K. Karmiloff & A. Karmiloff-Smith. Pathways to language: From fetus to adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001.

Karmiloff, K.

Karmiloff-Smith, A.

248

Telling unfamiliar language: C. Moon and colleagues, “Two-day-olds prefer their native language.”  Infant Behavior and Development 16 (1993): 495-500.  T. Nazzi and colleagues, “Language discrimination by newborns: Toward an understanding of the role of rhythm.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 24/3 (1998): 756-66.

Moon, C. (and colleagues)

Nazzi, T. (and colleagues)

248

Distinguishing languages in the same rhythmic class:  T. Nazzi and colleagues, “Language discrimination by English-learning 5-month-olds: Effects of rhythm and familiarity.”  Journal of Memory and Language 43 (2000): 1-19.

248

Bilingual infants recognizing both languages: J. Werker and colleagues, “Bilingual speech processing in infants and adults.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 1-18). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006.

Werker, J. (and colleagues)

248-249

Learning not to be universal listener: J. Werker & R. C. Tees, “The organization and reorganization of human speech perception.”  Annual Review of Neuroscience 15 (1992): 377-402.

Werker, J.

Tees, R. C.

249

Catalan-Spanish bilinguals: N. Sebastian-Galles & L. Bosch, “On-line processing of native and non-native phonemic contrasts in early bilinguals. Cognition 72 (1999): 111-23.  Canadian experiment: T.C. Burns, J. Werker, & K. McVie, “Development of phonetic categories in infants raised in bilingual and monolingual environments.”  In B. Beachley and colleagues (Eds.), Proceedings of the 27th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 173-184).  Somerville MA: Cascadilla Press, 2003.

Sebastian-Galles, N.

Bosch, L.

Burns, T. C.

Werker, J.

McVie, K.

250-251

Monolinguals using similar phonemes in word learning: J. Werker and colleagues, “Infants’ ability to learn phonetically similar words: Effects of age and vocabulary size.” Infancy 3 (2002): 1-30.

Werker, J. (and colleagues)

250

Effects of developing dominance: Burns and colleagues, see note for p. 249.

Burns (and colleagues)

250-251

Bilinguals using similar phonemes in word learning: C. Fennell & J. Werker, Bilingual infants’ attention to fine phonetic detail in a word learning task.  Paper presented at the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, April 2003, Tempe AZ.

Fennell, C.

Werker, J.

252-253

Phonological assessment at 36-months: A. M. Navarro, B. Z. Pearson, A. B. Cobo-Lewis, & D.K. Oller. Assessment of phonological development in bilingual children at age 36 months: Comparison to monolinguals in each language. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Speech Language and Hearing Association, Orlando FL, December 1995.

Navarro, A. M. (with Pearson, Cobo-Lewis, and Oller)

253-254

Language intelligibility: A. Navarro, “Phonetic effects of the ambient language in early speech : Comparisons of monolingual- and bilingual-learning children.” Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 1998.  Also: Navarro, A., Pearson, B. Z., Cobo-Lewis, A.B., & Oller, D. K. (2005).  “Differentiation in early phonological adaptation?”  In J. Cohen, K. McAlister, K. Rolstad, & J. MacSwan (Eds.) ISB4: Proceedings of the 4 th International Symposium on Bilingualism (pp.1690-1702).  Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.

Navarro, A.

Navarro (with Pearson, Cobo-Lewis, and Oller)

254

Reference to CDI (See note for p. 63.)

Fenson, L. (and others)

255-256

Lexical spurt in two languages: B. Z. Pearson & S. Fernandez, “Patterns of interaction in the lexical development in two languages of bilingual infants.” Language Learning 44 (1994): 617-653.

Pearson, B. Z. with Fernandez, S.

256

Cross-linguistic study of first words: B. Boysson-Bardies & M. Vihman, “Adaptation to language: Evidence from babbling and first words in four languages.” Language67 (1991): 297-319.

Boysson-Bardies, B.

Vihman, M.

256-260

Bilingual lexical development generally: B. Z. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers.” International Journal of Bilingualism 2 (1998): 347-372.

Pearson, B. Z.

261

J. Bruner on narrative development: Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

Bruner, J.

262

world-wide study of narrative: R. Berman & D. Slobin, Relating events in narrative. (Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 1994).

Berman, R.

Slobin, D.

262

Studies of multilingual narratives: S. Stromqvist & L. Verhoeven (Eds.), Relating events in narrative: Typological and contextual perspectives. Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2004. Also Verhoeven & Stromqvist (Eds.), Narrative development in a multilingual context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.

Stromquist, S.

Verhoeven, L.

262

bilingual frog story study: B. Z. Pearson, “Narrative competence in bilingual school children in Miami.” In Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 135-174). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.

Pearson, B. Z.

263

incidence of dyslexia: American Speech Language and Hearing Association website http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/LBLD.htm (last accessed on July 1, 2007).

ASHA website

263

Reading in two languages better: A. B. Cobo-Lewis, B.Z. Pearson, R.E. Eilers, & V.C. Umbel, “Chapter 4: Effects of bilingualism and bilingual education on oral and written English skills: A multifactor study of standardized test outcomes.” In Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (chapter 4, pp. 64-97). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.

Cobo-Lewis (with Pearson, Eilers, and Umbel)

265-267

Effect of home and school language on standardized scores: D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers, Language and literacy in bilingual children. (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002); B. Z. Pearson, “Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the United States.” Applied Psycholinguistics, 28/3 (2007): 399-410.

Oller, D. K.

Eilers, R. E.

Pearson, B. Z.

267

English versus Spanish preschool: L. Wong-Fillmore, “When learning a second language means losing a first.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 6 (1991): 323-346.

Wong-Fillmore, L.

269

Additive vs subtractive bilingualism: W. Lambert, “Effects of bilingualism on the individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences.” In P.A. Hornby (Ed.), Bilingualism: Psychological, social, and educational implications (pp. 15-28). NY: Academic Press, 1977.

Lambert, W.

270

How much time in English: Cummins, see note p. 85-86. Also see note for p. 116.

Cummins, J.

Collier, V.

270

1st language hastens the 2nd: Cummins, J. (1981). “The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students.” In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Los Angeles: California State University; Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center. Also: Genesee, F. Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education. New York: Newbury House, 1987.

Cummins, J.

Genesee, F.

271-273

K. Hakuta & D. D'Andrea, “Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in Mexican background high-school students.” Applied Linguistics 13 (1992): 72-99 (graph on page 81).

Hakuta, K.

D’Andrea, D.

274

more balanced comparisons between mono- and bi-linguals: K. Hakuta, The mirror of language. NY: Basic Books, 1986.

Hakuta, K.

274-275

SES effect on standardized scores: A. Nairn and colleagues, The reign of ETS: The corporation that makes up minds.(s.n. 1980).

Nairn, A. (and colleagues)

276

E. Peal & W. Lambert, “The relation of bilingualism to intelligence.” Psychological Monographs 76 (1962).

Peal, E.

Lambert, W.

276-277

SAT study: B. Z. Pearson, “Predictive validity of the SAT-Verbal scores for high-achieving Hispanic college students.”  Hispanic Journal of the Behavioral Sciences 15 (1993): 342-56.

Pearson, B. Z.

277-278

No measures normed on bilinguals: B. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development in bilingual babies and toddlers,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 2, (1998), pp. 347-372.  Also, F. Genesee, J. Paradis & M. Crago (2004), Dual language development and disorders. Chapter 8. (Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2004).

Pearson, B. Z.

Genesee, F.

Paradis, J.

Crago, M.

278-279

All children have some singlets: V. C. Umbel and colleagues, “Measuring bilingual children’s receptive vocabularies,” Child Development 63 (1992): 1012-20. Also, B.Z. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development in bilingual babies and toddlers.” International Journal of Bilingualism 2 (1998): 347-72.

Umbel, V. C. (and colleagues)

Pearson, B. Z.

279

Profile effect: D. K. Oller, B. Z. Pearson, & A. B. Cobo-Lewis, “Profile effects in early bilingual language and literacy.”  Applied Psycholinguistics, 28/2 (2007): 191-230.

Oller, D. K. (with Pearson and Cobo-Lewis)

281-282

Critical mass: V. C. Gathercole, “Monolingual and bilingual acquisition: Learning different treatments of that-trace phenomena in English and Spanish.” D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 220-254). (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002).

Gathercole, V. C.

282

Types of errors, from insufficient exposure: V. C. Gathercole & E. M. Thomas, “Input factors influencing the acquisition of Welsh.” In J. Cohen and colleagues, Proceedings of the ISB4 (pp. 852-874). Somerville MA: Cascadilla Press, 2005.

Gathercole, V. C. (with Thomas, E. M.)

page

288

Waldorf schools on language: R. Steiner, The Genius of Language, (Herndon VA: Anthroposophic Press, 1919-1920).

Steiner, R.

289

Waldorf Association contact information:  Rudolf Steiner Library, 65 Fern Hill Road Ghent, N.Y. 12075 (rsteinerlibrary@taconic.net). 

289

Modern writers on Waldorf:  M. Glockler & W. Goebel, A guide to child health, (Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2003), p. 265.

Glockler, M. (with Goebel, W.)

290

No studies of bilingualism in a social science framework: A. Pavlenko, Emotions and multilingualism, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

Pavlenko, A.

291

Quotation from Einar Haugen:  E. Haugen, “The stigmata of bilingualism,” In A.Dil (Ed.), The Ecology of Language, Essays by Einar Haugen. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Haugen, E.

291

Source of monolingual myth: G. Steiner, Errata: An examined life, (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 102-3.

Steiner, G.

291-292/ 295

G. Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of language and translation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

Steiner, G.

292

Pause fillers in different languages: see Linguistlist archive, volume 2-675, October 17, 1991.  on talking speed:  F. Pellegrino, J. Farinas, J-L. Rovas, “Automatic estimation of speaking rate in multilingual spontaneous speech.” from Speech Prosody 2004, March 23-26, 2004,Nara, Japan. (http://www.isca-speech.org/archive/sp2004/spo4-517.pdf)

Linguistlist

Pellegrino, F. (and others)

292

Cultural frame switches: N. Ramírez-Esparza, S. D. Gosling,V. Benet-Martínez, J. P. Potter, J. W. Pennebaker, “Do bilinguals have two personalities? A special case of cultural frame switching,” Journal of Research in Personality, 40 (2006), pp. 99–120.

Ramirez-Esparza, N. (and others)

293

Irish poet: N. Ni Dhomhnaill, “Linguistic ecology: Preventing a great loss,” in I. de Courtivron, Lives in Translation (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 79-92.

Ni Dhomhnaill, N.

293

Bilingual anthologies: I. de Courtivron (Ed.), Lives in Translation:Bilingual Writers on Identity and Creativity, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). Also, D. Sommer (Ed.),Bilingual Games, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).

De Courtivron, I.

Sommer, D.

293

I. Stavans, “Love affair with Spanglish,” in I. de Courtivron, Lives in Translation, pp. 129-146.  A. Dorfman, “The wandering bigamists of language,” (pp.29-38) (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).

Stavans, I.

Dorfman, A.

293-294

Authorities on the bilingual mind: A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as a tool for exploring bilingual lives,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 9 (1) (2005), pp. 7-26.

Wierzbicka, A.

294

Quotation, none regrets bilingualism: I. de Courtivron, p. 2. (See note for p. 293.)

De Courtivron, I.

294

Bilingual memoir: E. Hoffman, Lost in translation, (NY: Dutton, 1989).

Hoffman, E.

294

Bilingual P.S.: E. Hoffman, “P.S.,”  in I. de Courtivron, pp. 49-54. (See note for p. 293.)

Hoffman, E.

294-295

Japanese bilingual writer: Y. Tawada, “Writing in the web of words,” in I. de Courtivron, pp. 147-156. (See note for p. 293.)

Tawada, Y.